Kamis, 03 Juni 2010
Minggu, 23 Mei 2010
modal auxliary
Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs such as will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need are used in conjunction with main verbs to express shades of time and mood. The combination of helping verbs with main verbs creates what are called verb phrases or verb strings. In the following sentence, "will have been" are helping or auxiliary verbs and "studying" is the main verb; the whole verb string is underlined:
- As of next August, I will have been studying chemistry for ten years.
Students should remember that adverbs and contracted forms are not, technically, part of the verb. In the sentence, "He has already started." the adverb already modifies the verb, but it is not really part of the verb. The same is true of the 'nt in "He hasn't started yet" (the adverb not, represented by the contracted n't, is not part of the verb, has started).
Shall, will and forms of have, do and be combine with main verbs to indicate time and voice. As auxiliaries, the verbs be, have and do can change form to indicate changes in subject and time.
- I shall go now.
- He had won the election.
- They did write that novel together.
- I am going now.
- He was winning the election.
- They have been writing that novel for a long time.
The Modal auxiliary verb dan kata kerja yang mengikutinya tidak mengalami perubahan untuk orang dan jumlah
The modal auxiliary verb ditempatkan segera sesudah subyek kalimat.
FORM: SUBJECT + THE MODAL AUXILIARY + INFINITIVE
(Positive) They can do it
(Negative) They can not do it
(Questions) Can they do it:
Short Answer Yes, they can/not, they can’t
Bentuk dan arti dari the modal auxiliary verbs:
1. Will (Future)
• They will come here on time
2. Could (ability in the past, possibility)
• She could climb when she wa still young. (ability in the past)
• She could come in a minute. (possibility)
3. Can (ability, permission)
• He can play the pino. (ability)
• They can play football here. (Permission)
4. May (Pemission, possibility)
• The children may play here. (permission)
• He may get a raise. (possibility)
5. Might (Possibility)
• He might get a rise in his salary. (possibility)
6. Should/ought to (obligation, desirability)
• Students ought to/should study regularly. (obligation)
• You ought not to/shouldn’t drink and drive. (desirability)
7. Must (conclusion, probability, necessity)
• He must be twenty years old. (conclusion, probability)
• You must be hungry. (conclusion, probability)
• You must study tonight.
EXERCISE:
• Tambahlan to dimana perlu, Jika to tidak diperlukan, tulislah dibagian yang kosong.
1. I have ... go down tomorrow.
2. Tom can ... play soccer.
3. Could you please ... open the window?
4. The students must ... learn all of the irregular verbs.
5. Sally has ... do her history.
6. I think you should ... take better care of yourself.
7. I ought ... go to the office this afternoon.
8. Would you ... speak more slowly, please?
9. We may ... go to Argentina for our vacation.
10. Will you please ... mail this letter for me?
• Lengkapi kalimat dengan can dan can’t
1. A cat ... climb trees, but it ... fly
2. A fish ... walk, but it ... swim
3. A dog ... bark, but it ... sing
4. You ... buy stamps at the post office, but you ... buy shoes there.
5. A tiny baby ... cry, but it ... talk
6. I ... write with a pen, but I ... write with a paper clip
7. I ... read book by noonlight, but I ... read in sunlight.
8. Trees ... produce oxygen, but rocks ... .
9. Fish ... live in air, but they ... live in water.
10. You ... store water in a glass jar, but you ... store it in a paper bag.
degree of comparison
In English grammar the degree of comparison of an adjective or adverb describes the relational value of one thing with something in another clause of a sentence. An adjective may simply describe a quality, (the positive); it may compare the quality with that of another of its kind (comparative degree); and it may compare the quality with many or all others (superlative degree).[1][2] In other languages it may describe a very large degree of a particular quality (in Semitic linguistics, called an elative).
The degree of comparison may be expressed morphologically, or syntactically. In English, for example, most monosyllabic and some disyllabic adjectives have morphological degrees of comparison: green (positive), greener (comparative), greenest (superlative); pretty, prettier, prettiest; while most polysyllabic adjectives use syntax: complex, more complex, most complex.
- The positive degree is the most basic form of the adjective, positive because it does not relate to any superior or inferior qualities of other things in speech.
- The comparative degree denotes a greater amount of a quality relative to something else. The phrase “Anna is taller than her father” means that Anna's degree of tallness is greater than her father's degree of tallness.
- The superlative degree denotes the most, the largest, etc., by which it differs from other things.
There are three Degrees of Comparison in English.
They are:
1. Positive degree.
2. Comparative degree.
3. Superlative degree.
Let us see all of them one by one.
1.Positive degree.
When we speak about only one person or thing, We use the Positive degree.
Examples:
• This house is big.
In this sentence only one noun “The house” is talked about.
• He is a tall student.
• This flower is beautiful.
• He is an intelligent boy.
Each sentence mentioned above talks about only one noun.
The second one in the Degrees of Comparison is...
2.Comparative degree.
When we compare two persons or two things with each other,
We use both the Positive degree and Comparative degree.
Examples:
a. This house is bigger than that one. (Comparative degree)
This house is not as big as that one. (Positive degree)
The term “bigger” is comparative version of the term “big”.
Both these sentences convey the same meaning.
b. This flower is more beautiful than that. (Comparative)
This flower is not as beautiful as that. (Positive)
The term “more beautiful” is comparative version of the term “beautiful”.
Both these sentences convey the same meaning.
c. He is more intelligent than this boy. (Comparative)
He is not as intelligent as this boy. (Positive)
The term “more intelligent” is comparative version of the term “intelligent”.
Both these sentences convey the same meaning.
d. He is taller than Mr. Hulas. (Comparative)
He is not as tall as Mr. Hulas. (Positive)
The term “taller” is comparative version of the term “tall”.
Both these sentences convey the same meaning.
The third one in the Degrees of Comparison is...
3.Superlative degree:
When we compare more than two persons or things with one another,
We use all the three Positive, Comparative and Superlative degrees.
Examples:
a. This is the biggest house in this street. (Superlative)
This house is bigger than any other house in this street. (Comparative)
No other house in this street is as big as this one. (Positive)
The term “biggest” is the superlative version of the term “big”.
All the three sentences mean the same meaning.
b. This flower is the most beautiful one in this garden. (Superlative)
This flower is more beautiful than any other flower in this garden. (Comparative)
No other flower in this garden is as beautiful as this one. (Comparative)
The term “most beautiful” is the superlative version of the term “beautiful”.
All the three sentences mean the same meaning.
c. He is the most intelligent in this class. (Superlative)
He is more intelligent than other boys in the class. (Comparative)
No other boy is as intelligent as this boy. (Positive)
The term “most intelligent” is superlative version of the term “intelligent”.
Both these sentences convey the same meaning.
d. He is the tallest student in this class. (Superlative)
He is taller than other students in this class. (Comparative)
No other student is as tall as this student. (Positive)
Both these sentences convey the same meaning.
Rabu, 19 Mei 2010
Conditional sentence
Conditional sentence
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In grammar, conditional sentences are sentences discussing factual implications or hypothetical situations and their consequences. Languages use a variety of conditional constructions and verb forms (such as the conditional mood) to form these kinds of sentences.
Full conditional sentences contain two clauses: the condition or protasis, and the consequence or apodosis.
- If it rains [condition], (then) the picnic will be cancelled [consequence].
Syntactically, the condition is the subordinate clause, and the consequence is the main clause. However, the properties of the entire sentence are primarily determined by the properties of the protasis (condition) (its tense and degree of factualness).
Contents[hide] |
[edit] Conditional sentences in English
English conditional sentences can be divided into the two broad classes of factual/predictive and hypothetical (counterfactual), depending on the form of the verb in the condition (protasis). The terms "factual" and "counterfactual" broadly correspond to the linguistic modalities called realis and irrealis.
[edit] Factual/predictive conditions
In these constructions, the condition clause expresses a condition the truth of which is unverified. The verb in the condition clause is in the past tense (with a past tense interpretation) or in the present tense (with a present or future tense interpretation). The result clause can be in the past, present, or future. Generally, conditional sentences of this group are in two groups, the "zero conditional" and the potential or indicative conditional, often called "first conditional" or "conditional 1". This class includes universal statements (both clauses in the present, or both clauses in the past) and predictions.
The "zero" conditional is formed with both clauses in the present tense. This construction is similar across many languages. It is used to express a certainty, a universal statement, a law of science, etc.:
- If you heat water to 100 degrees celsius, it boils.
- If you don't eat for a long time, you become hungry.
- If the sea is stormy, the waves are high.
It is different from true conditionals because the introductory "if" can be replaced by "when" or "whenever" (e.g., "When you heat water..."), which cannot be done for true conditionals.
The potential or indicative conditional, often referred to as the "first conditional" or "conditional 1", is used more generally to express a hypothetical condition that is potentially true, but not yet verified. The conditional clause is in the present or past tense and refers to a state or event in the past. The result can be in the past, present, or future. Some examples with the condition clause in the past tense:
- If she took that flight yesterday, she arrived at 10pm.
- If she took that flight yesterday, she is somewhere in town today.
- If she took that flight yesterday, we'll see her tomorrow.
A condition clause (protasis) in the present tense refers to a future event, a current event which may be true or untrue, or an event which could be verified in the future. The result can be in the past, present, or future:
- If it's raining here now, then it was raining on the West Coast this morning.
- If it's raining now, then your laundry is getting wet.
- If it's raining now, there will be mushrooms to pick next week.
- If it rains this afternoon, then yesterday's weather forecast was wrong.
- If it rains this afternoon, your garden party is doomed.
- If it rains this afternoon, everybody will stay home.
- If I become President, I'll lower taxes.
Certain modal auxiliary verbs (mainly will, may, might, and could) are not usually used in the condition clause (protasis) in English:
- *If it will rain this afternoon, …
- *If it may have rained yesterday, …
There are exceptions, however, in which will is used exactly as in the first example, namely when the action in the if clause takes place after that in the main clause:
- (The weather forecast says it's going to rain.) Well, if it will rain, we must take umbrellas.
- If aspirins will cure it, I'll [I will] take a couple tonight instead of this horrible medicine.[1]
Other situations in which will can be used in an if clause include when will is not being used as an auxiliary verb, in other words when it is being used modally to express willingness, persistence, or a wish:
- If you'll [you will] just hold the door open for me a moment, I can take this table out to the kitchen.
- If you will keep all the windows shut, of course you'll get headaches.
- If you will excuse me, I think I will slip into something more comfortable.[2][3]
In colloquial English, the imperative is sometimes used to form a conditional sentence: e.g. "go eastwards a mile and you'll see it" means "if you go eastwards a mile, you will see it".
[edit] Hypothetical (counterfactual) conditions
In these constructions, the condition clause expresses a condition that is known to be false, or presented as unlikely. The result clause contains a conditional verb form consisting of would (or could, should, might) plus a main verb in the base form (infinitive without to).
The contrary-to-fact present conditional, often referred to as the "second conditional" or "conditional 2", is used to refer to a current state or event that is known to be false or improbable. The past subjunctive (or in colloquial English, simply the past tense) must be used:
- If she were [colloq. was] at work today, she would know how to deal with this client.
- If I were [colloq. was] the king, I could have you thrown in the dungeon.
The same structure can be used to refer to a future state or event:
- If I won the lottery, I would buy a car.
- If he said that to me, I would run away.
In many cases, when referring to future events, the difference between a realis and irrealis conditional is very slight:
- (realis) If you leave now, you can still catch your train.
- (irrealis) If you left now, you could still catch your train.
The contrary-to-fact past conditional (sometime referred to as the "third" conditional, conditional 3) is used to refer to contrary-to-fact past events. The pluperfect (or past perfect) is used in the condition clause.
- If you had called me, I would have come.
- If you had done your job properly, we wouldn't be in this mess now.
Some varieties of English regularly use would (often shortened to (I)'d) and would have (often shortened to (I)'d have) in counterfactual condition clauses, but this is often considered non-standard: If you'd leave now, you'd be on time. (conditional 2.) / If you (would)'ve told me, we could've done something about it. (conditional 3.) Such use of would is widespread especially in spoken US English in all sectors of society, but these forms are not usually used in more formal writing. Nevertheless, some reliable sources simply label this usage as acceptable US English and no longer label it as colloquial.[4][5]
There are exceptions, however, where would is used in British English too in seemingly counterfactual conditions, but these can usually be interpreted as a modal use of would: If you would listen to me once in a while, you might learn something. (conditional 2.) [6][7] In cases in which the action in the if clause takes place after that in the main clause, use of would in counterfactual conditions is however considered standard and correct usage in even formal UK and US usage: If it would make Bill happy, I'd [I would] give him the money.[8]
Should can appear in the condition clause to refer to a future event presented as possible, but unlikely, undesirable, or otherwise "remote": If I should die before I wake, …, If you should ever find yourself in such a situation, …
[edit] Construction of conditional sentences in English
In English, there are three coinditional sentence formulas. They are:
The first formula indicates the possible outcome of an event that is likely to occur: If + Present Simple/Present Progressive + Present Simple/Present Progressive/Future Simple/Future Progressive/Imperative
The second formula indicates the possible outcome of an event that is less likely to occur:
If + Present Perfect/Present Perfect Progressive/Preterite/Past Continuous + Conditional Present/Conditional Present Progressive
(In British and Canadian English: If + Imperfect Subjunctive + Conditional Present/Conditional Present Progressive)
The third formula indicates the possible outcome of an event that did not occur, and is therefore a missed opportunity: If + Pluperfect/Pluperfect Progressive + Conditional Perfect/Conditional Perfect Progressive
It is possible to reverse the order of the clauses, however, the protasis must always follow the word "If" (Eg. "If + I miss the bus, + I will be late for school" can be adjusted to: "I will be late for school + if + I miss the bus.)
[edit] The semantics of conditional sentences
The material conditional operator used in logic (i.e.
[edit] Conditional sentences in Latin
Conditional sentences in Latin are traditionally classified into three categories, based on grammatical structure.
- simple conditions (factual or logical implications)
- present tense [if present indicative then indicative]
- past tense [if perfect/imperfect indicative then indicative]
- future conditions
- "future more vivid" [if future indicative then future indicative]
- "future less vivid" [if present subjunctive then present subjunctive]
- contrafactual conditions
- "present contrary-to-fact" [if imperfect subjunctive then imperfect subjunctive]
- "past contrary-to-fact" [if pluperfect subjunctive then pluperfect subjunctive]
[edit] Conditional sentences in French
Si + Présent de l'indicatif + Présent de l'indicatif/Futur simple de l'indicatif/Présent de l'impératif
Si + Imparfait de l'indicatif + Présent du conditionnel
Si + Plus-que-parfait de l'indicatif + Passé du conditionnel
[edit] Conditional sentences in Italian
Italian includes the subjunctive in the second and third formulas, and does not allow the present to mix with the future in the first formula:
Se + Presente dell'indicativo
Se + Futuro semplice dell'indicativo + Futuro semplice dell'indicativo
Se + Imperfetto del congiuntivo (subjunctive) + Presente del condizionale
Se + Trapassato (Pluperfect) del congiuntivo + Passato del condizionale
active passive
Active / Passive Verb Forms
Sentences can be active or passive. Therefore, tenses also have "active forms" and "passive forms." You must learn to recognize the difference to successfully speak English.
Active Form
In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.
[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]
Examples:
Passive Form
In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the action.
[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]
Examples:
Active / Passive Overview
| Active | Passive | |
| Simple Present | Once a week, Tom cleans the house. | Once a week, the house is cleaned by Tom. |
| Present Continuous | Right now, Sarah is writing the letter. | Right now, the letter is being written by Sarah. |
| Simple Past | Sam repaired the car. | The car was repaired by Sam. |
| Past Continuous | The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store. | The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store. |
| Present Perfect | Many tourists have visited that castle. | That castle has been visited by many tourists. |
| Present Perfect Continuous | Recently, John has been doing the work. | Recently, the work has been being done by John. |
| Past Perfect | George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license. | Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license. |
| Past Perfect Continuous | Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris. | The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris. |
| Simple Future will | Someone will finish the work by 5:00 PM. | The work will be finished by 5:00 PM. |
| Simple Future be going to | Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight. | A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight. |
| Future Continuous will | At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes. | At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John. |
| Future Continuous be going to | At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes. | At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washed by John. |
| Future Perfect will | They will have completed the project before the deadline. | The project will have been completed before the deadline. |
| Future Perfect be going to | They are going to have completed the project before the deadline. | The project is going to have been completed before the deadline. |
| Future Perfect Continuous will | The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished. | The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished. |
| Future Perfect Continuous be going to | The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished. | The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished. |
| Used to | Jerry used to pay the bills. | The bills used to be paid by Jerry. |
| Would Always | My mother would always make the pies. | The pies would always be made by my mother. |
| Future in the Past Would | I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 PM. | I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM. |
| Future in the Past Was Going to | I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner tonight. | I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally tonight. |
